Community Policing and Community Safety and Security

Community Policing and Community Safety and Security What, if anything, can community policing do to reduce crime and improve community safety and security? Introduction While an original concept of community policing may be found in what is referred to as the Peelian Principles (the police are the people and the people are the police[1]) modern definitions have become much more complex. A comprehensive definition developed by the United States Department of Justice, describes it as a philosophy that promotes operational strategies, which support the systematic use of partnerships and problem solving techniques, to proactively address the immediate conditions that give rise to public safety issues such as crime, social disorder and fear of crime[2]. In this essay an attempt is made to evaluate current community policing practices to determine if they present a viable strategy to reduce crime and improve community safety and security. Policing in the 21st Century What has made implementation the community policing philosophy difficult has been that, while the words serve and protect appear in the mottos of many police forces/services throughout the world, the changing social order of the mid 20th century coupled to advancing technology saw the police become more isolated and disconnected from the communities they were ostensibly serving and protecting. At the same time, crime and social disorder left society feeling threatened and, to an extent, abandoned leading to an us and them scenario emerging within both the police and society. The police were seen, at best, as crime fighters and, at worst, instruments of the state attempting to enforce order. Academic papers in the late 20th century saw the emergence of Zimbardos broken windows theory[3] and Wilson and Kellings (1982) work distinguishing between crime and the fear of crime leading to what was ultimately termed zero tolerance policing. While successful in certain areas, this approach further entrenched the us and them mindset and served to alienate large portions of certain communities. Furthermore, by the end of the 20th century the increased global focus on human rights, transparency and accountability required a more holistic approach to addressing crime, safety and security. Fundamentally, the works conducted by Zimbardo and Wilson and Kelling correctly identified psycho-socio aspects of modern living but, at that time, the response by authorities failed to take into consideration that the issues could not be dealt with solely by the police acting in an enforcement or crime fighting role. Furthermore, while law enforcement and crime fighting remain important functions of the police, recent research indicates that one third of incidents that police respond to are social work as opposed to crime related (Karn, 2013)[4]. In considering responses to these issues it was recognised that collective efficacy needed to be developed with the community reinforcing informal control mechanisms over itself in partnership with the police that could, when required, act as a law enforcer, mediator or conduit to other means of assistance. Community policing has thus emerged as a mechanism through which collective efficacy can be developed or reinstated in communities. In essence, public safety, security and policing change from being police business to being everyones business[5]. Building this collective efficacy through a community policing programme is, however, both complex and time consuming requiring a fundamental change in both the philosophy and practice of policing using a decentralised and proactive, problem solving approach to the work carried out by the police which, in turn, is supported by community engagement and through partnerships with other agencies (Mackenzie and Henry, 2009). More specifically, the changes that are required cannot simply be a modification of existing practices but rather requires actual changes to be made from senior management through to front line officers. Requirements for effective community policing For community policing to be effective, the priority has to be the establishment of mutual trust which is required for effective interaction. Where this trust is missing, no amount of legislation or policy documents will be able to progress effective police/community interaction. For example, in South Africa, the Interim Constitution requires the establishment of Community Police Forums (CPF)[6] which is further strengthened through the South African Police Service Act of 1995 which formally directs the functions of the CPFs at station level. So while there appears to be intent at the highest political level to implement community policing, the implementation has been described as largely symbolic (Pelser, 2000)[7] with little being done to ensure the establishment of close mutually beneficial ties between the police and community. This stems partially from the history of the country which saw a paramilitary force acting as law enforcers for the government thereby alienating much of the population. The transition to a police service saw some key elements required for community policing to be enacted, such as decentralisation of authority, but the police service has of yet been largely unable to effectively engage with the majority of communities. Establishing this trust with the community cannot however take place unless there are changes changes brought around to the traditional bottom-down management styleapplied in the police. While strategic implementation requires policy decisions to be made at senior levels and directed downwards, a bottom-up approach is required if meaningful community engagement is to be achieved. This requires a restructuring to empower and support the front line officer who interacts with the community on a daily basis so that the officer is in a position exercise initiative and make decisions that are both relevant to the community and supported by police management. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to ensure that the officers engaged in community policing receive specialised training in a variety of non-traditional law enforcement disciplines such as conflict resolution, mediation and engagement in culturally diverse environments. In addition to human resources, financial resources are also required to ensure an effective community policing programme. Government funding is imperative to ensure that problems identified by the community are met in an effective and timely fashion. If this does not occur, the trust required will be eroded and the perceived usefulness of the community policing officers to the community will be undermined. At the same time, community resources can also be tapped to supplement government funding, whether these resources are human, financial or other in-kind contributions. By mobilising the community to accept some element of financial responsibility collective efficacy may also be catalysed. The Impact of Community Policing on Crime, Safety and Security Recent studies have shown that higher numbers of police does not necessarily lead to a reduction in crime (Bradford, 2011)[8] indicating that more focussed interventions, as opposed to to sheer numbers, are required. This along with overall moves to professionalise the police has led, internationally to a move away from reactive policing towards a more proactive approach with a focus on problem orientated policing (POP) and intelligence-led policing (ILP) and being observed. Problem orientated policing fits with community policing strategies as it focusses on tackling problems identified by local communities and developing an understanding of these problems[9]. This includes determining why they are occurring and identifying appropriate courses of action that can include actors beyond the police. This approach has been recognised as being effective in reducing victimisation and perceptions relating to antisocial behaviour (Quinton and Tuffin, 2006)[10]. The approach most often used to drive POP is known as SARA (scanning, analysis, response and assessment). SARA has proven effective in problem solving as it breaks a complex concept down into easy to manage steps. In the scanning phase, problems are identified, prioritised and stakeholders identified thereby providing a valuable opportunity for the community engagement. In the analysis phase the dynamics, cause and effect of the problem are identified which leads to a response being developed that is specific to the issue at hand. Finally, the actions taken need to be assessed to determine if the problem has been permanently resolved and that the response contributed to the resolution (Clegg et al, 2000)[11]. By following this model, in addition to resolving issues of concern, trust with the community can be developed and strengthened. Importantly, police attention is focussed on issues that are of community concern and not based on political priorities received from central governme nt or one-sided analysis and prioritisation by the local police force/service itself. Recently, the civil unrest that developed in Ferguson, Missouri following the killing of Michael Brown could have possibly been avoided if effective police community engagement mechanisms based on POP/SARA had have been in place. While POP has proven effective in addressing crimes that directly and visibly impact a community, organised crime poses no less of a threat but, due to its often clandestine nature, communities may not be aware of its existence within their neighbourhood. From a policing perspective, intelligence-led policing has proven an essential and effective tool in addressing organised crime. The investigative techniques applied to ILP such as telephone intercepts, informers and undercover operatives may appear, at first glance, to run contrary to the goals of community policing. However, where effective community/police interaction takes place, the community can be made aware of the existence of crime of this nature and local knowledge may prove useful to investigators, be it from victims, witnesses or even perpetrators. The goal however should not be to turn the community into informers but, based on shared interests, provide a service to the benefit of their community. Once again, the issue of trust is of paramount importance with the community feeling free to share information and confident that the police will act on that information in a responsible and effective manner. Conclusion Community policing is a complex and time consuming endeavour however there are clear benefits to be gained from the implementation of functioning programme. Through the development of trust with the community the police will gain access to a larger amount of information that can be useful in the identification of and arrest of offenders. That however cannot be the sole purpose of community policing or where the key value lies. Through the promotion of collective efficacy, communities can start acceptinggreat responsibility for issues of their own safety and security, leading to the police not always being the first or only responder to a variety of problems. In this way, many social order issues can be dealt with through informal mechanisms that may or may not involve the police which as a result can allow the police more opportunity to focus on criminal issues raised by the community. Furthermore, the police are also in a strong position to raise criminal issues, whether petty or of a more serious nature with community, explain the police response and, if possible, devise a course of action that is effective and agreeable to all. Increased police community contact can also be used to diffuse a variety of local issues whether they be of a political, social, ethnic or cultural nature, there by reducing intra or inter community tensions and creating a greater feeling of safety and security for all involved. [1] Police Reform: Power to the People, The Economist, 2 December 2010 [2] Community Policing Defined, US Department of Justice at www.cops.usdoj.gov, e030917193 accessed on 02 September 2014 [3] Zimbardo, P.G. 1969 The Human Choice: Individuation, reason and disorder versus indivduation, impulse and chaos, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation Vol 17 237-307 [4] Karn J 2013 Policing and Crime Reduction, The Police Foundation, Pg 7 [5] Pelser E, Schnetler J, Louw A, Not Everybodys Business: Community Policing in the SAPS Priority Areas, EU Pg 6 [6] Rakgoadi P (1995) Community Policing and Governance, Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, Pg 2 [7] Pelser E, 1999, An Overview of Community Policing in South Africa, in Clegg I, Hunt R, Whetton J (2000) Policy Guidance on Support to Policing in Developing Countries, University of Wales, Pg 114 [8] Bradford B, 2011, Police Numbers and Crime Rates Pg 7 accessed at justiceinspectorates.gov.uk on 5 September 2014 [9] Karn J 2013 Policing and Crime Reduction, The Police Foundation, Pg 19 [10] Quinton P, Tuffin R 2006, Neighbourhood Change: the Impact of the National Reassurance Policing Programme Pg 159 accessed from policing.oxfordjournals.org at the Periodicals Section, LMU on 05 September 2014 [11] Clegg I, Hunt R, Whetton J (2000) Policy Guidance on Support to Policing in Developing Countries, University of Wales, Pg 187

Misogny in a Street Car Named Desire

Women and Misogyny and Fatalism in Tennessee Williams’ A Streetcar Named Desire Tennessee Williams wrote this critically acclaimed play during the 20th century when women and their place in society were greatly challenged. According to Boydston (2004) men were breadwinners and women resided in the home where they would raise children and maintain the home. As protector of the home, women exhibited characteristics such as piety, purity and domesticity. The notion of women entering the workforce, she continued, threatened the ideals of true womanhood and masculinity.In other words the woman’s foray into the man’s sphere violated the separation of roles between men and women because the ‘public sphere’ was reserved for men. It is this ideology that forms the basis for the misogynistic and fatalistic view of women in the play. Fatalism as defined by Abrams (2005) is the belief that all events are predetermined and are; therefore, inevitable. As a consequ ence, a submissive attitude to events results from such a belief.Through characterization and the choice of dramatic genre, The Streetcar Named Desire exposes the deleterious effects of misogyny on women and the dominance that men wield over subservient powerless women. The characterization of the dominant characters in the play develops the idea of misogyny and fatalism. Stanley the male dominant in the play is seen as an alpha male. True to the custom of Williams’ characterization of men from the North, Stanley is cast as a ‘brutish’ character who ‘sizes women up at a glance with sexual classifications’.Stanley does not regard women as being valuable apart from their worth in slaking his sexual desires. Stanley believes that women exist to serve his needs, respect him and obey him without question. This is in keeping with the era in which the play was written and the fact that men were seen as the stronger of the sexes. His language and behaviour a re laden with vulgar sexual overtones. Stanley Kowalski objectifies women as he values their physique; however, he ignores the innate needs and complexities of the women he claims as his.Stanley uses sex and his brute strength to subdue the women who fall into his circle. After physically abusing his wife he uses sex to substantiate his insincere apology. He also uses sex to comfort Stella after Blanche leaves and ultimately rapes Blanche in order to regain his sense of manliness and bring her down from the ‘columns’ she had built her life on which seemed superior to him. In scene one, Stanley forces a packet of met upon his wife; this symbolizes his male dominance in an increasingly patriarchal society. He acquires a feeling of superiority from this standpoint.Williams depicts Stanley receiving his wife's fondness with â€Å"lordly composure†; this insinuates that Stanley believes that he deserves his wife's respect and devotion without having to work for it in any way because he is a man; he believes that she should have these feelings towards him as a matter of automation. The statement: â€Å"Be comfortable is my motto,† is extremely true for Stanley as he does what he wishes and disregards the consequences. Through dialogue such as this, Williams asserts that Stanley inherently fails to take into account the repercussions his own requirements and desires have on others.He is in total control and the only person endowed with power; therefore the only person he takes into consideration – and the only person his wife is allowed to take into concern – is himself. The fatalistic view of women is evident in William’s characterization of Stanley’s misogynistic behaviour which is promulgated by his passive wife Stella. She accepts his crude behaviour and cleans up after him. Stella does not think for herself and as a result she fears life without her abusive husband. She depends totally on him for economic su rvival and for her sense of self.As a result she acquiesces to his every whim and fancy and accepts and blames herself for his physical and verbal abuse. She betrays her own thoughts and chooses her husband and places her sister in an asylum. By refusing to believe that Stanley raped her sister, she reconciles her decision to continue living with him. Williams’ depiction of Stella alludes to the idea that her future is linked to her submissive nature and the tenets of fatalism. She hardly speaks and when she does her speech is barely audible. Stella is presented as a flat character with no imagination or complexities.Additionally, Blanche is cast as a foil to the misogynistic Stanley and the polar opposite of her sister, Stella. From the first scene, Williams creates antagonism between Blanche and Stanley and this sets the stage for the descent and discord that runs from beginning to denouement in the play. The seeming purity and lofty air proffered by Blanche is only an atte mpt at sophistry to hide the shame of her promiscuous life. Her education allows her to play the part of the demure genteel lady, while being willing to seduce an unsuspecting newspaper boy.Blanche uses her sexuality to achieve things and although she may seem different from Stella in her vociferous opposition to Stanley’s physical abuse, the two sisters were very alike in that they found their own sense of self and value in their relationships with men. Williams underscores this with his discussion of Blanche’s promiscuity, the death of her homosexual husband, and her relationships with students at the school at which she taught. Blanche flirts and teases Stanley until she receives the onslaught of his overpowering primal animalistic behaviour, when she is raped.Through this ultimate transgression, Williams shows that the women of that era who tried to escape the prescribed roles assigned to them will be destroyed. Stanley’s outright disgrace of Blanche allows him to gain the transcendence and puts her effectually in her place. Blanche seems fated for this as she has built a fantasy world for herself where she is constantly pretending. One would think that as a result of her constant incredulous construction of reality other that what it is, Blanche was fated to the mental breakdown which she experienced at the end of the play.In addition to characterization, Williams also uses the dramatic genre to create the misogynistic and fatalistic view of women in the play. The play is written as a modern tragedy. Griffith (2006) describes a tragedy as a subgenre of drama that, according to Aristotle, contains conventions such as a larger-than-life hero whose flaw brings about a precipitous fall and whose fate inspires pity and fear in the audience. In the play, A Streetcar Named Desire, Blanche is this heroine whose actions grab the attention of the audience/reader.From her entrance her incongruity with Elysian Fields, is evident. She is from Bell e Reve, a place of â€Å"beautiful dreams†. Blanche’s great flaw is that she fails to accept the changes that are happening in the world. She tries to recapture her lost virtue and the respect she once had through pretense, deceit, self-aggrandizement and pride. Her fantastical ideas about what she deserves are exposed by her hypocrisy. Her vanity makes her rude and obnoxious as she believes that she was better than those with whom she had to share the ‘hovel’.Finally her lies cause her to lose the love she tries to gain and the sanity she tries to preserve. Her deceit and callous treatment of others, in an attempt to make herself seem superior, result in her final delusion and separation from reality. The men she loves disappoint her, and she, even in a delusive state, finds that she must depend on a man for sustenance. Blanche’s tragedy comes from her own vanity, duplicity and wantonness which she hides under her superior intellect and vocabulary.

New World Explorations From the 1400s to 2000s - 2889 Words

History Research Project: Discovering the New World | The 15th Century Vs the 21st Century | | A comparative and contrasting document that looks into the possibility of conflict, disease spread, war, violence, and national competition in exploring outer space without recognizing our History and why we learn it. | | By Kelli O’Shea | 11/25/2011 | History 201 Section 004 U.S. History to 1877 | A LOOK INTO THE NEW WORLD Imagine a new world unfolding in front of our eyes. While science fiction movies do a marvelous job at portraying the unfathomable, we still cannot even picture the idea of what the 22nd century brings. Here we sit in the 21st century. The majority of people are too involved in cell phones,†¦show more content†¦We began questioning what was there for us, the planets and the space. Although we have been wondering and studying astrology since the beginning of time, we find ourselves most preoccupied with the idea now. Much like all new adventures and explorations, there has been failures. I am not here to talk about the failures that have happened though, just to let you know there are numerous there to be accounted for. Instead we shall look at the developments. During the Red Scare, a country competition to get to the new land first and claim or stake it like playing the board game Risk, most of our best outer space designing was made. The first rocket was USSRâ₠¬â„¢s â€Å"Sputnik 1† on October 4th, 1957. It was then followed by the first live being in orbit 1957 by the USSR, the 1st human spaceflight in 1961 by the USSR, the first spacewalk in 1965 by the USSR, the first moon landing of America with â€Å"Apollo 11† in 1969, and the first space station in 1971. Although there is much controversy to the moon landing of July 20th 1969, I include it for the sake of history being remembered that way regardless to peoples’ preferences on it being either real or fake. 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